Criminality in patients with autoimmune encephalitis: A case series.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Despite it being an immunotherapy-responsive neurological syndrome, patients with autoimmune encephalitis (AE) frequently exhibit residual neurobehavioural features. Here, we report criminal behaviours as a serious and novel postencephalitic association. METHODS: This retrospective cohort study included 301 AE patients. Five of who committed crimes underwent direct assessments and records review alongside autoantibody studies. RESULTS: Five of 301 patients (1.7%) with AE exhibited criminal behaviours, which included viewing child pornography (n = 3), repeated shoplifting, and conspiracy to commit murder. All five were adult males, with LGI1 autoantibodies (n = 3), CASPR2 autoantibodies, or seronegative AE. None had evidence of premorbid antisocial personality traits or psychiatric disorders. Criminal behaviours began a median of 18 months (range = 15 months-12 years) after encephalitis onset. At the time of crimes, two patients were immunotherapy-naïve, three had been administered late immunotherapies (at 5 weeks-4 months), many neurobehavioural features persisted, and new obsessive behaviours had appeared. However, cognition, seizure, and disability measures had improved, alongside reduced autoantibody levels. CONCLUSIONS: Criminal behaviours are a rare, novel, and stigmatizing residual neurobehavioural phenotype in AE, with significant social and legal implications. With caution towards overattribution, we suggest they occur as part of a postencephalitis limbic neurobehavioural syndrome.

Autoimmune encephalitis: recent clinical and biological advances.

In 2015, we wrote a review in The Journal of Neurology summarizing the field of autoantibody-associated neurological diseases. Now, in 2023, we present an update of the subject which reflects the rapid expansion and refinement of associated clinical phenotypes, further autoantibody discoveries, and a more detailed understanding of immunological and neurobiological pathophysiological pathways which mediate these diseases. Increasing awareness around distinctive aspects of their clinical phenotypes has been a key driver in providing clinicians with a better understanding as to how these diseases are best recognized. In clinical practice, this recognition supports the administration of often effective immunotherapies, making these diseases 'not to miss' conditions. In parallel, there is a need to accurately assess patient responses to these drugs, another area of growing interest. Feeding into clinical care are the basic biological underpinnings of the diseases, which offer clear pathways to improved therapies toward enhanced patient outcomes. In this update, we aim to integrate the clinical diagnostic pathway with advances in patient management and biology to provide a cohesive view on how to care for these patients in 2023, and the future.

Distinct movement disorders in contactin-associated-protein-like-2 antibody-associated autoimmune encephalitis.

Autoimmune encephalitis can be classified into antibody-defined subtypes, which can manifest with immunotherapy-responsive movement disorders sometimes mimicking non-inflammatory aetiologies. In the elderly, anti-LGI1 and contactin associated protein like 2 (CASPR2) antibody-associated diseases compose a relevant fraction of autoimmune encephalitis. Patients with LGI1 autoantibodies are known to present with limbic encephalitis and additionally faciobrachial dystonic seizures may occur. However, the clinical spectrum of CASPR2 autoantibody-associated disorders is more diverse including limbic encephalitis, Morvan's syndrome, peripheral nerve hyperexcitability syndrome, ataxia, pain and sleep disorders. Reports on unusual, sometimes isolated and immunotherapy-responsive movement disorders in CASPR2 autoantibody-associated syndromes have caused substantial concern regarding necessity of autoantibody testing in patients with movement disorders. Therefore, we aimed to systematically assess their prevalence and manifestation in patients with CASPR2 autoimmunity. This international, retrospective cohort study included patients with CASPR2 autoimmunity from participating expert centres in Europe. Patients with ataxia and/or movement disorders were analysed in detail using questionnaires and video recordings. We recruited a comparator group with anti-LGI1 encephalitis from the GENERATE network. Characteristics were compared according to serostatus. We identified 164 patients with CASPR2 autoantibodies. Of these, 149 (90.8%) had only CASPR2 and 15 (9.1%) both CASPR2 and LGI1 autoantibodies. Compared to 105 patients with LGI1 encephalitis, patients with CASPR2 autoantibodies more often had movement disorders and/or ataxia (35.6 versus 3.8%; P < 0.001). This was evident in all subgroups: ataxia 22.6 versus 0.0%, myoclonus 14.6 versus 0.0%, tremor 11.0 versus 1.9%, or combinations thereof 9.8 versus 0.0% (all P < 0.001). The small group of patients double-positive for LGI1/CASPR2 autoantibodies (15/164) significantly more frequently had myoclonus, tremor, 'mixed movement disorders', Morvan's syndrome and underlying tumours. We observed distinct movement disorders in CASPR2 autoimmunity (14.6%): episodic ataxia (6.7%), paroxysmal orthostatic segmental myoclonus of the legs (3.7%) and continuous segmental spinal myoclonus (4.3%). These occurred together with further associated symptoms or signs suggestive of CASPR2 autoimmunity. However, 2/164 patients (1.2%) had isolated segmental spinal myoclonus. Movement disorders and ataxia are highly prevalent in CASPR2 autoimmunity. Paroxysmal orthostatic segmental myoclonus of the legs is a novel albeit rare manifestation. Further distinct movement disorders include isolated and combined segmental spinal myoclonus and autoimmune episodic ataxia.

Leucine-Rich Glioma-Inactivated 1 versus Contactin-Associated Protein-like 2 Antibody Neuropathic Pain: Clinical and Biological Comparisons.

Pain is a under-recognized association of leucine-rich glioma-inactivated 1 (LGI1) and contactin-associated protein-like 2 (CASPR2) antibodies. Of 147 patients with these autoantibodies, pain was experienced by 17 of 33 (52%) with CASPR2- versus 20 of 108 (19%) with LGI1 antibodies (p = 0.0005), and identified as neuropathic in 89% versus 58% of these, respectively. Typically, in both cohorts, normal nerve conduction studies and reduced intraepidermal nerve fiber densities were observed in the sampled patient subsets. In LGI1 antibody patients, pain responded to immunotherapy (p = 0.008), often rapidly, with greater residual patient-rated impairment observed in CASPR2 antibody patients (p = 0.019). Serum CASPR2 antibodies, but not LGI1 antibodies, bound in vitro to unmyelinated human sensory neurons and rodent dorsal root ganglia, suggesting pathophysiological differences that may underlie our clinical observations. ANN NEUROL 2021;90:683-690.

Absence of Neuronal Autoantibodies in Neuropsychiatric Systemic Lupus Erythematosus.

This study aimed to characterise both neuronal autoantibodies and levels of interferon α, two proposed causative agents in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus (NPSLE). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma from 35 patients with systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE; 15 with NPSLE) showed no antibodies against natively expressed N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), or the surface of live hippocampal neurons. By comparison to controls (n = 104), patients with SLE had antibodies that bound to a peptide representing the extracellular domain of NMDARs (p < 0.0001), however, binding was retained against both rearranged peptides and no peptide (r = 0.85 and r = 0.79, respectively, p < 0.0001). In summary, neuronal-surface reactive antibodies were not detected in NPSLE. Further, while interferon α levels were higher in SLE (p < 0.0001), they lacked specificity for NPSLE. Our findings mandate a search for novel biomarkers in this condition. ANN NEUROL 2020;88:1244-1250.

COVID-19-related acute necrotizing encephalopathy with brain stem involvement in a patient with aplastic anemia.

OBJECTIVE: To describe a novel case of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19)-associated acute necrotizing encephalopathy (ANE) in a patient with aplastic anemia where there was early brain stem-predominant involvement. METHODS: Evaluation of cause, clinical symptoms, and treatment response. RESULTS: A 59-year-old woman with a background of transfusion-dependent aplastic anemia presented with seizures and reduced level of consciousness 10 days after the onset of subjective fever, cough, and headache. Nasopharyngeal swab testing for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was positive, and CT during admission demonstrated diffuse swelling of the brain stem. She required intubation and mechanical ventilation for airway protection, given her reduced level of consciousness. The patient's condition deteriorated, and MRI on day 6 demonstrated worsening brain stem swelling with symmetrical hemorrhagic lesions in the brain stem, amygdalae, putamina, and thalamic nuclei. Appearances were consistent with hemorrhagic ANE with early brain stem involvement. The patient showed no response to steroid therapy and died on the eighth day of admission. CONCLUSIONS: COVID-19 may be associated with an acute severe encephalopathy and, in this case, was considered most likely to represent an immune-mediated phenomenon. As the pandemic continues, we anticipate that the spectrum of neurologic presentation will broaden. It will be important to delineate the full clinical range of emergent COVID-19-related neurologic disease.

Protocolised non-invasive compared with invasive weaning from mechanical ventilation for adults in intensive care: the Breathe RCT.

BACKGROUND: Invasive mechanical ventilation (IMV) is a life-saving intervention. Following resolution of the condition that necessitated IMV, a spontaneous breathing trial (SBT) is used to determine patient readiness for IMV discontinuation. In patients who fail one or more SBTs, there is uncertainty as to the optimum management strategy. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of using non-invasive ventilation (NIV) as an intermediate step in the protocolised weaning of patients from IMV. DESIGN: Pragmatic, open-label, parallel-group randomised controlled trial, with cost-effectiveness analysis. SETTING: A total of 51 critical care units across the UK. PARTICIPANTS: Adult intensive care patients who had received IMV for at least 48 hours, who were categorised as ready to wean from ventilation, and who failed a SBT. INTERVENTIONS: Control group (invasive weaning): patients continued to receive IMV with daily SBTs. A weaning protocol was used to wean pressure support based on the patient's condition. Intervention group (non-invasive weaning): patients were extubated to NIV. A weaning protocol was used to wean inspiratory positive airway pressure, based on the patient's condition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: The primary outcome measure was time to liberation from ventilation. Secondary outcome measures included mortality, duration of IMV, proportion of patients receiving antibiotics for a presumed respiratory infection and health-related quality of life. RESULTS: A total of 364 patients (invasive weaning, n = 182; non-invasive weaning, n = 182) were randomised. Groups were well matched at baseline. There was no difference between the invasive weaning and non-invasive weaning groups in median time to liberation from ventilation {invasive weaning 108 hours [interquartile range (IQR) 57-351 hours] vs. non-invasive weaning 104.3 hours [IQR 34.5-297 hours]; hazard ratio 1.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.89 to 1.39; p = 0.352}. There was also no difference in mortality between groups at any time point. Patients in the non-invasive weaning group had fewer IMV days [invasive weaning 4 days (IQR 2-11 days) vs. non-invasive weaning 1 day (IQR 0-7 days); adjusted mean difference -3.1 days, 95% CI -5.75 to -0.51 days]. In addition, fewer non-invasive weaning patients required antibiotics for a respiratory infection [odds ratio (OR) 0.60, 95% CI 0.41 to 1.00; p = 0.048]. A higher proportion of non-invasive weaning patients required reintubation than those in the invasive weaning group (OR 2.00, 95% CI 1.27 to 3.24). The within-trial economic evaluation showed that NIV was associated with a lower net cost and a higher net effect, and was dominant in health economic terms. The probability that NIV was cost-effective was estimated at 0.58 at a cost-effectiveness threshold of £20,000 per quality-adjusted life-year. CONCLUSIONS: A protocolised non-invasive weaning strategy did not reduce time to liberation from ventilation. However, patients who underwent non-invasive weaning had fewer days requiring IMV and required fewer antibiotics for respiratory infections. FUTURE WORK: In patients who fail a SBT, which factors predict an adverse outcome (reintubation, tracheostomy, death) if extubated and weaned using NIV? TRIAL REGISTRATION: Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN15635197. FUNDING: This project was funded by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) Health Technology Assessment programme and will be published in full in Health Technology Assessment; Vol. 23, No. 48. See the NIHR Journals Library website for further project information.

Patients who become very unwell may require help from a breathing machine. This requires the patient to be given drugs to put them to sleep (sedation) and have a tube placed through their mouth directly into the windpipe (tube ventilation). This can be life-saving, but may cause harm if used for long periods of time. Non-invasive ventilation (mask ventilation) provides breathing support through a mask that covers the face. Mask ventilation has several advantages over tube ventilation, such as less need for sedation, and it enables the patient to cough and communicate. In previous studies, switching patients from tube to mask ventilation when they start to get better seemed to improve survival rates and reduce complications. The Breathe trial tested if using a protocol to remove tube ventilation and replace it with mask ventilation is better than continuing with tube ventilation until the patient no longer needs breathing machine support. The trial recruited 364 patients. Half of these patients were randomly selected to have the tube removed and replaced with mask ventilation and half were randomly selected to continue with tube ventilation until they no longer needed breathing machine support. The mask group spent 3 fewer days receiving tube ventilation, although the overall time needing breathing machine help (mask and tube) did not change. Fewer patients in the mask group needed antibiotics for chest infections. After removing the tube, twice as many patients needed the tube again in the mask group as in the tube group. There were no differences between the groups in the number of adverse (harm) events or the number of patients who survived to leave hospital. Mask ventilation was no more expensive than tube ventilation. In conclusion, mask ventilation may be an effective alternative to continued tube ventilation when patients start to get better in intensive care.

Effect of Protocolized Weaning With Early Extubation to Noninvasive Ventilation vs Invasive Weaning on Time to Liberation From Mechanical Ventilation Among Patients With Respiratory Failure: The Breathe Randomized Clinical Trial.

Importance: In adults in whom weaning from invasive mechanical ventilation is difficult, noninvasive ventilation may facilitate early liberation, but there is uncertainty about its effectiveness in a general intensive care patient population. Objective: To investigate among patients with difficulty weaning the effects of protocolized weaning with early extubation to noninvasive ventilation on time to liberation from ventilation compared with protocolized invasive weaning. Design, Setting, and Participants: Randomized, allocation-concealed, open-label, multicenter clinical trial enrolling patients between March 2013 and October 2016 from 41 intensive care units in the UK National Health Service. Follow-up continued until April 2017. Adults who received invasive mechanical ventilation for more than 48 hours and in whom a spontaneous breathing trial failed were enrolled. Interventions: Patients were randomized to receive either protocolized weaning via early extubation to noninvasive ventilation (n = 182) or protocolized standard weaning (continued invasive ventilation until successful spontaneous breathing trial, followed by extubation) (n = 182). Main Outcomes and Measures: Primary outcome was time from randomization to successful liberation from all forms of mechanical ventilation among survivors, measured in days, with the minimal clinically important difference defined as 1 day. Secondary outcomes were duration of invasive and total ventilation (days), reintubation or tracheostomy rates, and survival. Results: Among 364 randomized patients (mean age, 63.1 [SD, 14.8] years; 50.5% male), 319 were evaluable for the primary effectiveness outcome (41 died before liberation, 2 withdrew, and 2 were discharged with ongoing ventilation). The median time to liberation was 4.3 days in the noninvasive group vs 4.5 days in the invasive group (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.89-1.40). Competing risk analysis accounting for deaths had a similar result (adjusted hazard ratio, 1.1; 95% CI, 0.86-1.34). The noninvasive group received less invasive ventilation (median, 1 day vs 4 days; incidence rate ratio, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.47-0.87) and fewer total ventilator days (median, 3 days vs 4 days; incidence rate ratio, 0.8; 95% CI, 0.62-1.0). There was no significant difference in reintubation, tracheostomy rates, or survival. Adverse events occurred in 45 patients (24.7%) in the noninvasive group compared with 47 (25.8%) in the invasive group. Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients requiring mechanical ventilation in whom a spontaneous breathing trial had failed, early extubation to noninvasive ventilation did not shorten time to liberation from any ventilation. Trial Registration: ISRCTN Identifier: ISRCTN15635197.

Distinct HLA associations of LGI1 and CASPR2-antibody diseases.

The recent biochemical distinction between antibodies against leucine-rich, glioma-inactivated-1 (LGI1), contactin-associated protein-2 (CASPR2) and intracellular epitopes of voltage-gated potassium-channels (VGKCs) demands aetiological explanations. Given established associations between human leucocyte antigen (HLA) alleles and adverse drug reactions, and our clinical observation of frequent adverse drugs reactions in patients with LGI1 antibodies, we compared HLA alleles between healthy controls (n = 5553) and 111 Caucasian patients with VGKC-complex autoantibodies. In patients with LGI1 antibodies (n = 68), HLA-DRB1*07:01 was strongly represented [odds ratio = 27.6 (95% confidence interval 12.9-72.2), P = 4.1 × 10-26]. In contrast, patients with CASPR2 antibodies (n = 31) showed over-representation of HLA-DRB1*11:01 [odds ratio = 9.4 (95% confidence interval 4.6-19.3), P = 5.7 × 10-6]. Other allelic associations for patients with LGI1 antibodies reflected linkage, and significant haplotypic associations included HLA-DRB1*07:01-DQA1*02:01-DQB1*02:02, by comparison to DRB1*11:01-DQA1*05:01-DQB1*03:01 in CASPR2-antibody patients. Conditional analysis in LGI1-antibody patients resolved further independent class I and II associations. By comparison, patients with both LGI1 and CASPR2 antibodies (n = 3) carried yet another complement of HLA variants, and patients with intracellular VGKC antibodies (n = 9) lacked significant HLA associations. Within LGI1- or CASPR2-antibody patients, HLA associations did not correlate with clinical features. In silico predictions identified unique CASPR2- and LGI1-derived peptides potentially presented by the respective over-represented HLA molecules. These highly significant HLA associations dichotomize the underlying immunology in patients with LGI1 or CASPR2 antibodies, and inform T cell specificities and cellular interactions at disease initiation.10.1093/brain/awy109_video1awy109media15796480660001.

N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antibody production from germinal center reactions: Therapeutic implications.

INTRODUCTION: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) antibody encephalitis is mediated by immunoglobulin G (IgG) autoantibodies directed against the NR1 subunit of the NMDAR. Around 20% of patients have an underlying ovarian teratoma, and the condition responds to early immunotherapies and ovarian teratoma removal. However, despite clear therapeutic relevance, mechanisms of NR1-IgG production and the contribution of germinal center B cells to NR1-IgG levels are unknown. METHODS: Clinical data and longitudinal paired serum NR1-reactive IgM and IgG levels from 10 patients with NMDAR-antibody encephalitis were determined. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells from these 10 patients, and two available ovarian teratomas, were stimulated with combinations of immune factors and tested for secretion of total IgG and NR1-specific antibodies. RESULTS: In addition to disease-defining NR1-IgG, serum NR1-IgM was found in 6 of 10 patients. NR1-IgM levels were typically highest around disease onset and detected for several months into the disease course. Moreover, circulating patient B cells were differentiated into CD19+ CD27++ CD38++ antibody-secreting cells in vitro and, from 90% of patients, secreted NR1-IgM and NR1-IgG. Secreted levels of NR1-IgG correlated with serum NR1-IgG (p < 0.0001), and this was observed across the varying disease durations, suggestive of an ongoing process. Furthermore, ovarian teratoma tissue contained infiltrating lymphocytes which produced NR1-IgG in culture. INTERPRETATION: Serum NR1-IgM and NR1-IgG, alongside the consistent production of NR1-IgG from circulating B cells and from ovarian teratomas suggest that ongoing germinal center reactions may account for the peripheral cell populations which secrete NR1-IgG. Cells participating in germinal center reactions might be a therapeutic target for the treatment of NMDAR-antibody encephalitis. Ann Neurol 2018;83:553-561.

Condition-dependent generation of aquaporin-4 antibodies from circulating B cells in neuromyelitis optica.

Autoantibodies to aquaporin-4 (AQP4) are pathogenic in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD). However, it is not known which B cells are the major contributors to circulating AQP4 antibodies nor which conditions promote their generation. Our experiments showed CD19+CD27++CD38++ circulating ex vivo antibody-secreting cells did not produce AQP4 antibodies under several culture conditions. To question whether other cells in circulation were capable of AQP4 antibody production, B cells were differentiated into antibody-secreting cells in vitro. Unfractionated peripheral blood mononuclear cells, isolated from 12 patients with NMOSD and a wide range of serum AQP4 antibody levels (91-26 610 units), were cultured with factors that mimicked established associations of NMOSD including T cell help, concurrent infections and cytokines reported to be elevated in NMOSD. Overall, the in vitro generation of CD19+CD27++CD38++ cells across several culture conditions correlated closely with the total IgG secreted (P < 0.0001, r = 0.71), but not the amount of AQP4 antibody. AQP4 antibody production was enhanced by CD40-ligand (P = 0.005), and by interleukin-2 plus toll-like receptor stimulation versus interleukin-21-predominant conditions (P < 0.0001), and did not require antigen. Across NMOSD patients, this in vitro generation of AQP4 antibodies correlated well with serum AQP4 antibody levels (P = 0.0023, r = 0.81). To understand how early within B cell lineages this AQP4 specificity was generated, purified B cell subsets were activated under these optimized conditions. Naïve pre-germinal centre B cells (CD19+CD27-IgD+) differentiated to secrete AQP4 antibodies as frequently as post-germinal centre cells (CD19+CD27+). Taken together, these human cell-culture experiments demonstrate that preformed B cells, rather than ex vivo circulating antibody-secreting cells, possess AQP4 reactivity. Their differentiation and AQP4 antibody secretion is preferentially driven by select cytokines and these cells may make the dominant contribution to serum AQP4 antibodies. Furthermore, as AQP4-specific B cells can derive from likely autoreactive naïve populations an early, pre-germinal centre loss of immunological tolerance appears present in some patients with NMOSD. This study has implications for understanding mechanisms of disease perpetuation and for rational choice of immunotherapies in NMOSD. Furthermore, the in vitro model presents an opportunity to apply condition-specific approaches to patients with NMOSD and may be a paradigm to study other antibody-mediated diseases.awy010media15732448284001.

Autoantibody-mediated diseases of the CNS: Structure, dysfunction and therapy.

The field of neuronal autoantibody associated diseases of the central nervous system has expanded dramatically in the last few years. The range of identified neuronal and glial antibody targets has led to the accurate classification of a number of syndromes which each associate with characteristic clinical features. These diseases are especially important due to their frequent response to immunotherapies. Antibodies against the N-methyl, d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) and leucine-rich glioma inactivated 1 (LGI1) are the commonest autoantibodies known in patients with autoimmune forms of encephalitis. Patients with NMDAR-antibodies often present with psychiatric symptoms and a movement disorder, whereas patients with LGI1-antibodies have frequent seizures and prominent amnesia. In contrast, aquaporin-4 and myelin-oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibodies are found in patients with inflammation of the spine and optic nerves. The antigenic-specificities appear to determine the associated clinical syndromes, hence the detection of these antibodies informs clinical practice and the biology of these diseases. Indeed, the mechanisms of antibody action are being intensively studied in vitro and in vivo. Overall, these studies confirm the pathogenic potential of the antibodies, and suggest antigen internalisation and complement fixation are the two dominant mechanisms of pathogenicity, and that their relative contributions vary between conditions. In addition to discussing the antigenic targets, the associated clinical features and mechanisms of antibodies, we review the current and future immunotherapy strategies which aim to optimise patient outcomes. This article is part of the Special Issue entitled 'Channelopathies.'

Innate and adaptive immunity in human epilepsies.

Inflammatory mechanisms have been increasingly implicated in the origin of seizures and epilepsy. These mechanisms are involved in the genesis of encephalitides in which seizures are a common complaint. Experimental and clinical evidence suggests different inflammatory responses in the brains of patients with epilepsy depending on the etiology. In general, activation of both innate and adaptive immunity plays a role in refractory forms of epilepsy. Epilepsies in which seizures develop after infiltration of cells of the adaptive immune system in the central nervous system (CNS) include a broad range of epileptic disorders with different (known or unknown) etiologies. Infiltration of lymphocytes is observed in autoimmune epilepsies, especially the classical paraneoplastic encephalitides with antibodies against intracellular tumor antigens. The presence of lymphocytes in the CNS also has been found in focal cerebral dysplasia type 2 and in cortical tubers. Various autoantibodies have been shown to be associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) and hippocampal sclerosis of unknown etiology, which may be due to the presence of viral DNA. During the last decade, an increasing number of antineuronal autoantibodies directed against membranous epitopes have been discovered and are associated with various neurologic syndromes, including limbic encephalitis. A major challenge in epilepsy is to define biomarkers, which would allow the recognition of patient populations who might benefit from immune-modulatory therapies. Some peripheral inflammatory markers appear to be differentially expressed in patients with medically controlled and medically refractory and, as such, could be used for diagnostic, prognostic, or therapeutic purposes. Establishing an autoimmune basis in patients with drug-resistant epilepsy allows for efficacious and targeted immunotherapy. Although current immunotherapies can give great benefit to the correctly identified patient, there are limitations to their efficacy and they may have considerable side effects. Thus the identification of new immunomodulatory compounds remains of utmost importance.

Diaphragm myoclonus followed by generalised atonia in a patient with trisomy 4p: unusual semiology in an unusual condition.

In this report, we describe a female patient with trisomy 4p, a rare genetic condition, with unusual seizure semiology. The patient is one of the oldest reported survivors with this condition. This semiology was noted while she was being monitored by inpatient video telemetry. We observed a series of myoclonic shoulder jerks, followed by hiccup-like episodes, and finally an atonic head drop. Corresponding ictal EEG showed semi-rhythmic high-amplitude slow waves with spikes superimposed over the frontotemporal areas. This semiology was confirmed as habitual by her parents. Subsequent hiccup-like episodes had no EEG correlate, and the head drop was again associated with semi-rhythmic high-amplitude slow waves and superimposed spikes, more prominent over the right hemisphere. In addition, we review the several cases in which hiccups have been associated with seizures and how this may relate to the neural pathways involved in the pathophysiology of hiccups. We believe the ictal hiccup-like episodes followed by atonia to be a seizure semiology that has not previously been documented. [Published with video sequence].

Imaging neuroinflammation in Alzheimer's disease and other dementias: Recent advances and future directions.

Alzheimer's disease (AD), dementia with Lewy bodies, frontotemporal dementia (FTD), and Huntington's disease (HD) are the main neurodegenerative causes of dementia. Causes and mechanisms of these diseases remain elusive. Neuroinflammation is increasingly emerging as an important pathological factor in their development. Positron emission tomography (PET) using [11C]PK11195 represents a method of visualizing the microglial component of neuroinflammation via the translocator protein (TSPO) and we discuss the valuable insights this has yielded in neurodegenerative diseases. We discuss the limitations of this method and the development of second generation TSPO PET ligands which hope to overcome these limitations. We also discuss other methods of visualizing neuroinflammation and review the state of current dementia treatments targeted at neuroinflammation. It is our view that a multimodal investigation into neuroinflammation in AD, Parkinson's disease dementia, FTD and HD will yield valuable pathological insights which will usefully inform development of therapeutic targets and biomarkers.

Clinical and experimental studies of potentially pathogenic brain-directed autoantibodies: current knowledge and future directions.

The field of neuronal surface-directed antibody-mediated diseases of the central nervous system has dramatically expanded in the last few years and now forms an important cluster of treatable neurological conditions. In this review, we focus on three areas. First, we review the demographics, clinical features and treatment responses of these conditions. Second, we consider their pathophysiology and compare autoantibody mechanisms and their effects to genetic or pharmacological disruptions of the target antigens. Third, we discuss areas of controversy within the field, propose possible resolutions, and explore new directions for neuronal surface antibody-mediated diseases.

Cognitive impairment in elderly renal inpatients: an under-identified phenomenon.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Cognitive impairment is a common but under-recognised problem in patients with chronic kidney disease, and is likely to become more significant as this patient population ages. METHODS: This cross-sectional study focussed on inpatients aged ≥65 years at a tertiary renal unit, and consisted of two parts. Part 1 (n = 25) considered whether cognitively impaired inpatients were being identified and being referred to memory services. In Part 2 (n = 105) two different cognitive function tests were attempted (6-CIT, MMSE). RESULTS: In Part 1, cognitive function tests were attempted in only 4 patients at admission and 1 patient subsequently. No patients were referred to memory services. In Part 2, 6-CIT was abnormal (score ≥8) in 61.4%, and MMSE was abnormal (score <27) in 79.5% (score 21-26: 28.9%, 15-20: 28.9%, 10-14: 13.3%, <10: 8.4%). There was a close correlation between MMSE and 6-CIT (R(2) = 0.735). Only 7.2% of those assessed had a documented cognitive deficit prior to admission. CONCLUSION: This is the first study looking at cognition in elderly inpatients with chronic kidney disease. There appears to be a much higher rate of cognitive impairment than expected and this is largely unidentified. These deficits are likely to have a major impact on both inpatient and outpatient management.